Review and comparison study of hybrid diesel/solar/hydro/fuel cell energy schemes for a rural ICT Telecenter

In this paper, the rural electrification study of an ICT Telecenter in particular reference to the Kelabit Highland of Sarawak is presented. The use of diesel generator and its associated environmental implications is first discussed. The cost-effectiveness of the present solar PV system and the solar/hydro schemes for rural electrification of the rural ICT are evaluated employing the HOMER simulation software, considering sustainability factors such as system efficiency, weather, fuel costs, operating and maintaining costs. Subsequently, simple novel Hybrid Energy Performance Equations and the associated Energy Performance Curves are derived and introduced, respectively, which provide a visualization model, simplifying hybrid system analysis. Results obtained in this study have shown that combined power schemes is more sustainable in terms of supplying electricity to the Telecenter compared to a stand-alone PV system due to prolong cloudy and dense haze periods. The hybrid systems can have efficiency range of ∼15%–75% compared to PV stand-alone of only ∼10%, indicating hybrid systems are more reliable and sustainable – in minimizing both energy losses and excess energy.     

Constructing low emitting power systems through grid extension in Papua New Guinea (PNG) with rural electrification

The effective rural electrification method varies with economic status and geographical location, and the benefits of decentralized generation differ for each energy system depending on its characteristics. This paper evaluates the most effective generation strategies with rural electrification in an optimized power system of Papua New Guinea (PNG) using a linear programming model. The energy system model developed for the study includes decentralized generation, centralized generation, and grid systems of electricity and gas with consideration for the current energy system and infrastructure. Two methods of rural electrification, decentralized generation and grid extension, are compared with and without the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The results of simulations show that extending the power grid that allows economical generation such as coal-fired power and hydropower to supply rural electricity is a more cost effective way for rural electrification. Although grid extension is more capital intensive than decentralized generation, the former reduces the total system cost through reduction of the fossil fuel use. Extending the power grid is also effective at attracting CDM investments, since it makes the power system flexible and provides opportunities to advance low emitting energy such as hydropower.     

Rahul Mehrotra Associates

Rahul Mehrotra maintains a diverse and active role as an architect, urban activist, writer and teacher. His book Bombay: The Cities Within (1995), with Sharada Dwivedi, is a major enquiry into the history and sociology of India's vivacious and contentious urbanism. He finds his city of practice - Mumbai - a mine for quarrying architectural ideations and languages. Unlike most regions in India that may have to adhere to a conformist cultural agenda, Mumbai offers a conceptual freedom in traversing the traditional and contemporary as the city has its particular plurality in the intertwining epochs, attitudes and ‘coming together and moving apart of the past and present’. Multiplicity is thus axiomatic in Mehrotra's interpretation of the city, although this is transferred in his architecture as a dialogical juxtaposition of public and private, exteriority and interiority, natural and industrial materials, and the traditional and contemporary. Interiority, arising both from reasons of climate and urban conditions, is an abiding theme in Mehrotra's work and is articulated through reified courtyards and walls that also retain an intimate conversation with the larger landscape. From residences to large complexes, he uses these elements with great craft and finesse to create dramatic spaces with changing palettes of materials, colours and phenomenally modulated differences between the exterior and interior.‘In our projects, the approach has been to abstract and interpret spatial arrangements as well as building vocabulary,’ he says. ‘The idea is to combine materials, to juxtapose conventional craftsmanship with industrial materials and traditional spatial arrangements with contemporary space organisation. In short, to give expression to the multiple worlds, pluralism and dualities that so vividly characterise the Asian landscape.’ Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Feasibility of wind energy for electrification of rural Jordanian sites

Feasibility of wind energy for electrification of five selected rural Jordanian sites (Zabda, Al-Risha al Garbia, Al-Risha al Sharkia Fako’e North and Fako’e South) was examined. For this purpose masts were installed at the selected sites and wind data measurement was performed for 1 year (September 2006–August 2007). Comparison of these data with long-term data from the Jordanian meteorological stations showed that the year when wind measurement was performed was a “low wind year”. It means that wind speeds were lower than long-term averages. Therefore, the data from measurements were used for feasibility calculations, without any need to build in safety factors. The obtained results from the feasibility analysis identifies Zabda as a prime wind energy site, both for electrification using small turbines and as a future site for commercial scale wind energy projects. Al-Risha al Garbia and Al-Risha al Sharkia are also identified as potential candidates for electrification by wind energy conversion systems. The feasibility of wind energy utilization in Fako’e North and Fako’e South was not found as favorable as in Zabda.     

Quantitative analysis of energy-efficiency strategy on CO2 emissions in the residential sector in Japan – Case study of Iwate prefecture

This study examines the economics of energy-efficiency strategies for reducing CO₂ emissions in the residential sector in Japan from the perspective of regional characteristics. For this study, the residential sector in Iwate prefecture was selected as representative of rural areas in Japan. In order to promote purchases of energy-efficient consumer appliances, the prefectural government is presumed to reimburse purchasers a part of the cost difference between energy efficient and conventional appliances. This paper begins with a discussion of the prefecture’s financial support for purchasers of energy efficient appliances and assumes that the payments come from prefectural government funds. This paper then looks at the effect of a carbon-tax refund on the reduction of CO₂ emissions. The results show that, if half of the households use energy-efficient appliances, then CO₂ emissions in the residential sector in the year 2020 will decreases from the BAU scenario, 0.726 Mt-C to 0.674 Mt-C. However, the Iwate prefectural government expends $105 million annually, which is 1.5% of the total tax revenue in the year 2003. The carbon-tax refund effectively encourages further reductions in CO₂ emissions. Under the $20/tC carbon tax, proposed by the Ministry of the Environment, the carbon-tax refund leads to a reduction in residential CO₂ emissions from 0.726 Mt-C to 0.712 Mt-C.     

PV for rural areas—the power utility (ZESA) Zimbabwe's experience

Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) is mandated to provide power to all parts of the country but in rural areas the electrification rate is very low, estimated at 5%. This is due to technical, financial and socio-economical factors. These factors include low loads, long reticulation lines, and low and erratic incomes. This renders the electrification of some rural areas through grid extension not feasible in the short and medium term. As part of the solution, renewables were incorporated as an alternative energy supply to such rural areas. This paper discusses the technical and socio-economic characteristics of the rural areas in Zimbabwe and the role of renewables in meeting rural loads.     

Energy use in the rural areas of India: setting up a rural energy data base

Aggregating and forecasting demand are crucial parts of energy planning. While a large number of energy consumption surveys have been conducted in the past in the rural energy sector of India, the lack of sufficient data and its compilation, coupled with doubt about the quality of data, has made the task extremely difficult. This paper summarizes our recent effort to compile, computerize and analyze data from 638 village energy consumption surveys covering over 39,000 households, carried out by different organisations between 1985 and 1989. The details of the level of information provided in the survey reports, area of survey, land use pattern, asset ownership, etc., of the collated studies are presented. Results based on the analysis of the energy consumption data compiled are then discussed. The national average for rural domestic thermal energy consumption (excluding water and space heating) estimated through this work (629 kcal or 2.63 MJ per capita daily) is much similar to the rural domestic thermal energy requirement assumed in most energy planning exercises in India in the past. The useful thermal energy consumption varies from 325 to 1065 kcal/cap/d (1.36-4.46 MJ/cap/d) in the East Coast Plain and Hills and the Eastern Himalayan Regions, respectively. Reconfirming the predominance of firewood, the data reveals that the contribution of firewood to the domestic thermal energy consumption has remained at about 58% over the last three decades; dungcake and agricultural residues contribute almost equally in the remaining share. At the national level, our estimates indicate that at least 180 million tonnes of firewood, 40 million tonnes of dungcakes and 30 million tonnes of agricultural residues were consumed in the rural sector for meeting the domestic thermal energy requirement in 1991. The paper also compares the estimates with those based on other surveys in India.     

Potential application of renewable energy for rural electrification in Malaysia

Energy poverty and lack of electricity in rural areas exacerbate the poverty of the developing countries. In Malaysia, 3.8% of the population lives below the poverty line and most of them are settled in rural areas. The electricity coverage in poor states is about 79% in comparison with 99.62% in Peninsular Malaysia. The renewable energy sources can be considered the best alternative to reduce the energy poverty of the rural areas where the grid extension through a difficult terrain and thick jungle is not possible or economic. In this study, the potential for applying renewable sources – solar, wind and hydropower – for rural electrification is investigated, especially in the poorest States. A comparative study on rural electrification policies, in order to have community approval, appropriate siting and financial benefits for the rural community, while considering the three categories of social, institutional and economic issues, is also examined. Finally, the Malaysian policies of rural electrification by applying renewable sources are explained. It is found that in Malaysia, with a maximum solar radiation of about 6.027 kWh/m² per day in Sabah and 5.303 kWh/m² per day in Sarawak, the potential for applying solar energy for electrification is too high. However, the potential for micro-hydropower in Sabah and Sarawak is found to be 3182 kW and 6317 kW through 18 and 22 sites, respectively.     

Impact comparison of PV system integration into rural and urban feeders

This paper is directed to evaluate the impact that the future widespread use of photovoltaic grid connected systems (PVGCSs) will have on feeder operation. With a view to achieve a global vision of this impact, the present work investigates representative feeders located in different latitudes. Actual rural and urban distribution feeders belonging to the Spanish electric utility have been selected and analyzed in both northern and southern latitudes.

The analysis identifies the operating variables to assess the PV impact in the different feeders. These critical variables are related to the design and performance characteristics of the feeder. Meteorological conditions at the installation site, load patterns, PV allocation and penetration are the main factors affecting this PV impact.     

Rural electrification in Zambia: A policy and institutional analysis

Zambia is well endowed with hydropower and other energy resources, which could facilitate production of electricity for both urban and rural areas of the country. The country has an installed electricity generation capacity of 1786 MW and undeveloped hydropower potential of over 6000 MW. In the last few years, demand has been growing and it is anticipated to outstrip supply in 2008. The load growth is attributed to increased mining activities and development of the industrial base. The country is also endowed with abundant natural resources such as arable land, water, minerals and wildlife. With the available resource base, electricity along with other social and economic infrastructure such as roads and telecommunications could facilitate increased economic activities. In rural areas, electricity could be used for crop irrigation, agro-processing, small-scale mining and to facilitate tourism. However, rural electrification (RE) faces many challenges such as long distances from existing power stations to targeted rural areas, low population densities, high poverty levels and low skills availability. These and other factors have contributed to continued low levels of access to electricity in rural areas of the country.